https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12809/185 2026-04-04T08:12:29Z https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12809/10894 Çine’de Bir Kaya Kütlesi İçinde Yer Alan ‘İsa’nın Doğumu’ Sahnesi Üzerine İncelemeler Özyurt Özcan, Hatice The village of Dinecik in the cine district of Turkiye's Aydin province has a single scene depicting the birth of Jesus among the Byzantine wall paintings on the mass rock. This depiction of the Nativity of Jesus is the only surviving Nativity scene among paintings of Latmos, Yatagan, and the southern Carian coasts close to cine. Because the Cappadocian wall paintings have the widest range of subjects among the paintings in Anatolia, they were influential in this study's iconographic analysis of the Nativity painting. The scene consists of many episodes covering a large surface, and while a significant portion has survived, especially the hands and faces of the figures, the fact that some of the depictions have been largely destroyed makes it difficult to make a sound evaluation. Still, a detailed examination of the work was able to be made with what remained of some of the scenes that provide period clues. The center of the depiction shows the baby Jesus and Mary. To the right of Mary on a square cradle with long legs is the baby Jesus with a halo on his head, wrapped in white swaddling cloth. Behind the cradle are figures of oxen and donkeys. Joseph is in the lower right corner of the scene seated on a chair with his back to Mary. The first bathing scene in the lower left corner of the stage shows the midwives who will wash Jesus. The upper left section of the scene is understood from the remaining fragments to involve shepherds; however, most of them have been destroyed. The upper right corner has the figure of an angel and the three soothsayers. The scene contains a crowded compositional arrangement that brings together episodes such as the Prophet Kings, the Adoration of the Shepherds, and the First Bath, each being depicted as a separate scene after the depiction of the Nativity in the early period as a style that had become widespread in the paintings of the Cappadocia region toward the end of the 10th century. The fact that Mary didn't begin being depicted in a semi-sitting position in nativity scenes with her head aimed at Jesus in the cradle until after the 10th century and that the technical and stylistic features commonly applied to 11th-century buildings had also been used in the depiction at Dinecik indicates the painting to have bene painted by local craftsmen in the late 10th and mid-11th centuries with regional characteristics. 2023-01-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12809/10798 The Historical, Topographic and Architectural Definitions of "GELaNDEMAUER" City Walls in Karia Paksoy, Sinan; Baran, Abdulkadir In the early 4th Century BC, the systematical constructions of 'Gelandemauer' city walls began in Karia under the Hekatomnid rule. Henceforth, 'Gelandemauer' city walls became the most advanced and sophisticated fortification system in Western Anatolia, both in tactical and topographical points, until the end of the 3rd century BC. On this type of city wall, defined by scholars as "Gelandemauer" circuits, the traces of walls follow the high ridges and summits of the lands, aiming to gain the topography's natural defense advantage. Therefore, the city walls built according to the "Gelandemauer" planning model surround larger areas than those required for civic buildings. These fortifications' topographical layout, tactical design, and construction method demonstrate the concept of advanced territorial defense. At the same time, the tradition of rural "Lelegian" residential architecture and stonework, entirely existing in the Halikarnassos Peninsula before the Hekatomnid rule in Karia, gave shape to the rustic appeal and economic character of the Hekatomnid 'emplekton' technique which would be adopted to requirements of the art of the 'poliorketic' siege warfare in Hellenistic period. In many cases, the initial construction of "Gelandemauer" city walls was also carried out using various masonry techniques based on distinct variants of 'emplekton' (ashlar, trapezoidal, polygonal, pseudo-polygonal) while considering the different topographical conditions, except for later repair. On the other hand, the architectural characteristics of 'Gelandemauer' in the region emerged as the consequence of the fact that Hekatomnids had supported the urbanization process and had undertaken the reconstructions of the prominent sanctuaries of the Karian League while installing an extent fortification network for defending the territory of the Karian Satrapy. In this regard, the Hekatomnid building program in military architecture has distinct characteristics that had a long-term influence on the design of Hellenistic fortifications. Maussollos' settlement policy based on urbanization by 'synoecism' that radically transformed the rural residential organization in Karia essentially determined the development of 'Gelandemauer' in the region. Since the end of the 4th century BC, adopting a similar settlement policy to the synoecism of Maussollos, many of the Macedonian leaders (Eupolemos, Pleistarkhos, Demetrios Poliorketes, Lysimakhos) principally fortified their 'metropoleis' with 'Gelandemauer' city walls. Accordingly, as appeared in the City of Herakleia ad Latmum (Pleistarkheia), reestablished by Pleistarkhos at the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 3rd century BC, this fortification technique was promoted by being modified to the advanced siege warfare engineering (poliorketic). It could be reasonably said that both cities carry the architectural memory of 'Gelandemauer' in Karia. Considering the transference of the architectural technique of Hekatomnid 'emplekton' in the city walls of Halikarnassos to the Early Hellenistic fortification of Herakleia ad Latmum, in this respect, Halikarnassos and Herakleia ad Latmum are significant cities of which the city walls could be taken as descriptive patterns to define the architectural and topographic details of 'Gelandemauer'; at the same time, it is also essential to emphasize the fact that these ancient Karian cities experienced similar settlement processes depending on 'synoecism' and in this manner, they were fortified with similar 'Gelandemauer' city walls. Fortification building projects planned for the defense of Halikarnassos in the second quarter of the 4th Century BC and Herakleia ad Latmum at the end of the 4th - early 3rd century BC contributed to the continuity of 'Gelandemauer' in Karia. Therefore, it should be considered that Karia is among the places where the architectural improvements in the design of 'Gelandemauer' city walls could uninterruptedly be pursued during the period from Maussollos' rule to the end of the 3rd - the beginning of the 2nd century BC when Philippos V. and Antiokhos III attempted to invade this region. Ancient cities fortified with "Gelandemauer" are mostly the centers of the political confederations called "koina" (e.g., Messene), or administrative centers of a kingdom or a regional political power (e.g., Syracuse in Sicily, Samos in Ionia, Halikarnassos, Herakleia ad Latmum in Karia, Demetrias in Thessalia, Antiokheia in Kilikia). Studying the evolution of "Gelandemauer" city walls in Karia to classify the ancient defense systems according to their architectural techniques, topographical designs, and chronological phases will undoubtedly contribute to the knowledge about urbanization and resettlement patterns in the region during the Classical and Hellenistic periods. 2023-01-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12809/10276 The Neolithic dualist scheme Bodet, Cedrıc The monumental twin steles of Göbekli Tepe are one in a long series of isomorphic compositions in Neolithic symbolism. Seemingly tracing back to the Palaeolithic, symmetry likely played a fundamental role for prehistoric societies. Ethnographers showed how hunter-gatherer ideology (mythology, totemism, etc.) is often structured around a dualistic worldview (male/female; summer/winter etc.) taking root in the kinship system through a division of the community into exogamic subgroups. It is this dualism that is argued to be embodied in the twin steles. The advent of autonomous agricultural lineages could explain why this timeless principle appears with such prominence in the Neolithic. 2022-01-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12809/8806 Pedasa Athena Kutsal Alanı Arkaik Dönem Kıbrıs Mortarları ve Bölgeler Arası Ticari İlişkilerdeki Rolü Özer, Bekir Archaeological finds obtained from the settlements, sanctuaries, and necropoleis of the southeastern Aegean provide ample and detailed information about the eastern Mediterranean and the cultural and commercial ties established in the archaic period. Among all the imported votive objects, Cypriot votive figurines from the sanctuaries of Samos Heraion, Miletos Aphrodite, Emecik Apollon, and Rhodes constitute, without exception, the largest group in terms of quantity and typological diversity. Finds from the Pedasa Athena sanctuary on the Lelegian Peninsula confirm that the city was in fact a part of the Mediterranean cultural and commercial network. Mortaria, both local and imported, were used as filling material during the construction of the large terrace wall of the Pedasa Athena Sanctuary which dates back to the second half of 4th century B.C. Finds Nos. 1-9 (Figs. 3-4) were among the functional cult objects from the sanctuary and are similar to archaic Cypriot mortaria with their yellow buff appearances, flat bases, diagonal walls, conic bodies, and thick, quadrangular rim profiles. Local imitations repeating the shape (Fig. 5) of imported examples (Cat. nos. 10-12, 14-15), some featuring a decorative band (Cat. no. 13), attest that local examples were soon reproduced in the southeastern Aegean. The majority of the finds (Cat. nos. 1-6, 8-11, 13, 15, 17-18) have been discovered from the same fill as the local and imported high-quality ceramics. Most of the finds from these fills can be dated to the late 7th century B.C. and the first three decades of the 6th century B.C. Mortaria form a close group showing typological and chronological common features as other forms from the same fill. The suggested date of 620-560 B.C. for mortaria unearthed at other centers that show typologically similar features must also be the timeline for the mortaria from Pedasa. The findings from the sanctuaries of Naucratis Apollo, Emecik Apollo, Samos Heraion, Ephesus Artemis, Assesus Athena, and Miletus Aphrodite suggest that mortaria were used to prepare and serve the food and cakes during the rituals for cult purposes in the sanctuaries of the Aegean world and related areas. All the archaeological evidence confirms that mortaria were among the absolutely indispensable cult objects of sanctuaries. Considering the mortaria discovered in southeastern Aegean settlements and sanctuaries, as well as the examples from the commercial cargo of the Çaycağız Koyu shipwreck, they were clearly quite popular in the region for roughly eighty years extending from the third quarter of the 7th century B.C. to the second quarter of the 6th century B.C. The primary cargo of the Kepçe Burnu shipwreck on the shores of Caria dated around the mid-7th century B.C. and the Çaycag?ız Koyu shipwreck dated to the early 6th century B.C. is basket-handled Cypriot amphorae. An overall evaluation of mortaria discovered in settlements, sanctuaries, and shipwrecks in the area reveals that they emerge as commercially valuable merchandise immediately after the mid-7th century when they first appear in the area. The presence of mortaria among the primary merchandise of the cargo aboard the Çaycag?ız Koyu shipwreck leaves no room for doubt about the commercial value of the mortaria. Various functions such as mashing, grinding, and mixing accelerated the rapid spread of imported mortaria and their local counterparts emulating imported originals, and caused them to become widespread in and around the shores of Caria. The scarcity of lekanai and similar bowl forms in the ceramic assemblage from the archaic period of the region explains the ample number of mortaria also used as bowls. Current archaeological data indicates that as of mid-7th century B.C., the relationship between the shores of Caria and Cyprus, which dates far back to the Early Iron Age, continued to grow and evolve in a more regular and uninterrupted fashion. In this network of relations, limestone and terracotta votive objects of Cypriot origin, basket-handled amphorae, mortaria, and surprisingly limited number of other ceramics constitute the documented cluster of data. The collected evidence reveals that the people of Caria were an integral part of the network of cultural and commercial ties in the Mediterranean world and that these relations were instrumental in familiarizing the locals with mortaria. It can be assumed that foreign visitors, locals returning from naval journeys, and mercenaries on their way home contributed towards the popularization of mortaria in the southeastern Aegean. Basket-handled Cypriot amphorae from the shipwrecks indicate that agricultural goods of Carian communities may have held an important place in the relationship between Cypriot and Carian societies as well. For the time being, it may be suggested that the olive oil, wine, and other regional produce of Carian communities played a part in eastern Mediterranean trade. It is striking to see that only a limited number of Cypriot amphorae have been discovered compared to the shipwreck data documented on the shores of the southeastern Aegean. It is evident that merchants of the northeastern Mediterranean procured a portion of the merchandise they sold on the international market directly from Caria and that the amphorae found in the shipwrecks were predominantly used for storing and transporting these goods aboard the ships. 2017-01-01T00:00:00Z